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One of the three kingdoms of ancient Korea and the one that in 668 unified
Korea under the unified Silla Dynasty (q.v.; 668–935). Silla is
traditionally believed to have been founded by Hyokkose in 57 BC.
By the 2nd century AD, a distinct confederation of local
tribes was definitely in existence in the southeastern portion of the Korean
peninsula. With the establishment of the hereditary monarchy of the Kim family
during the reign of King Naemul (356–402), the promulgation of state laws and
decrees, and the annexation of the eastern half of the Kaya state on the eastern
tip of the peninsula in the reign of King Pophung (514–540),
Silla emerged as a full-fledged kingdom.
Its aristocracy was endowed with various privileges, and the aristocrats monopolized all important official posts. The excavations of extravagant ornaments, such as gold crowns and gold belts, indicate the luxury in which they lived. Sculpture and the decorative arts showed a tendency toward abstraction. A Silla crown, for example, is designed in simple, angular lines unlike the curvilinear floral designs characteristic of Paekche openwork. Granite was a frequent medium for both architecture and sculpture. Old Silla pottery is unglazed, grayish stoneware with a texture almost like that of slate. Vessel forms have clean-cut, functional lines, and decorations are incised geometric patterns.
Encouraged by the state, Buddhism flourished, and many temples were erected, the most prominent of which were the Hwangyong-sa, Pulguk-sa, and Sokkuram (a grotto shrine).
In the reign of King Chinhung (540–576) a unique military corps,
called the Hwarangdo, was organized, and the military system was realigned.
In
the following century this powerful military machine allied itself with the
Chinese T'ang dynasty (618–907) and subjugated the southeastern Korean state
of Paekche in 660 and the northern Korean state of Koguryo in 668. This
was followed by almost a decade of fighting, in which Silla expelled the T'ang
forces and established a unified kingdom in the Korean peninsula.
The largest of the three kingdoms into which ancient Korea was divided until 668. Koguryo is traditionally said to have been founded in 37 BC in the Tongge River basin of northern Korea by Chu-mong, leader of one of the Puyo tribes native to the area, but modern historians believe it is more likely that the tribal state was formed in the 2nd century BC.
By the reign of King T'aejo (AD 53–146), a royal hereditary system had been established. With the promulgation by King Sosurim (reigned 371–384) of various laws and decrees aimed at centralizing royal authority, Koguryo emerged as a full-fledged aristocratic state. Its territory was extended greatly during the reign of King Kwanggaet'o (391–412) and further by Changsu (reigned 413–491). The entire northern half of the Korean peninsula, the Liaotung Peninsula, and a considerable portion of Manchuria (Northeast Provinces) were under Koguryo rule during the kingdom's peak period.
The central bureaucracy had 12 grades, with a tae-daero (prime minister) at the top who was elected by his fellow officials every three years. The officials ruled through a series of military garrisons erected at strategic points throughout the state.
As a result of Chinese influence, Buddhism was introduced in AD 372 as an ideological backing for the newly developed centralized bureaucracy, and, at about the same time, Confucian education began to be emphasized as a means of maintaining the social order. Taoism was also widespread in the later years. The numerous surviving tomb paintings give a good picture of the life, ideology, and character of the Koguryo people.
With the establishment of the unified Sui (581–618) and T'ang (618–907)
dynasties in China, Koguryo began to suffer incursions from China. The
kingdom was defeated in 668 by the allied forces of the southern Korean kingdom
of Silla and the T'ang dynasty, and the entire peninsula came under the Unified Silla
dynasty (668–935).
One of three kingdoms into which ancient Korea was divided before 660. Occupying the southwestern tip of the Korean peninsula, Paekche is traditionally said to have been founded in 18 BC in the Kwangju area by a legendary leader named Onjo. By the 3rd century AD, during the reign of King Koi (234–286), Paekche emerged as a fully developed kingdom. By the reign of King Kunch'ogo (346–375), it had established control over a region that included the whole Han River basin in central Korea.
In the late 5th century the northern Korean kingdom of Koguryo deprived Paekche of its territory in the Han River basin, and it moved its capital south to Ungjin (present Kongju). In the reign of King Song (523–554), the kingdom was forced to move its capital even further south to Sabi (present Puyo), as more of its territory was occupied by Koguryo.
The kingdom was divided into five administrative districts. There were 16 official grades in the central government, and the 6 officials of the first grade formed a kind of cabinet. The highest-ranking official, called sangjwapyong, was elected every three years.
Buddhism flourished, and many temples were built. Confucianism also prospered, producing a large number of eminent scholars. Paekche visual arts reveal technical maturity along with warm human qualities, sometimes held to reflect the influence of southern Chinese art of the Six Dynasties period. These qualities are evident, for example, in softly modeled Buddha statues in relaxed poses, with their distinctive and expressive “Paekche smile.”
In an attempt to contain Koguryo's attacks and recover some of its lost territory in the Han River basin, Paekche allied itself with Silla, the other southern Korean state, but it eventually lost this territory to Silla. In 660 its defeat by the allied forces of Silla and the Chinese T'ang dynasty (618–907) brought an end to its rule. Eight years later Silla's forces defeated the northern Korean state of Koguryo and united the Korean peninsula under the Unified Silla dynasty (668–935).
Kaya, also called Karak, Japanese Mimana, tribal league that was formed sometime before the 3rd century AD in the area west of the Naktong River in southern Korea. The traditional date for the founding of the confederation is given as AD 42, but this is considered to be highly unreliable. The confederation was sometimes known as Karak after its largest single unit.
Because the area was isolated from the rest of the peninsula by Mount Chii in the west and Mount Kaya in the north, the Kaya confederation developed trade largely by sea with the Chinese capital at Lo-yang and with Wae (Japan). The people of Kaya are thought to have been closely related to the tribes that crossed over from Korea to Japan a century or two before this period, and Kaya frequently sought aid from the Japanese in its feuds with its larger Korean neighbours.
Archaeological finds suggest that Kaya developed a culture not much behind that of the neighbouring Silla kingdom. Various earthenwares with patterns quite different from those of Silla have been excavated from the region. The Kaya people invented a unique musical instrument, the kayagum, and produced a well-known player named U Ruk.
Because of its unfavourable conditions—it was surrounded on the Korean peninsula by the two greater powers of Silla and Paekche—the political and social development of Kaya was arrested, and it did not mature into a centralized kingdom. Silla subjugated the eastern half of the kingdom in 532 and the western half in 562.